Paul's Direct Quotations of Greco-Roman Philosophers and Poets

Paul directly quotes or alludes to Greco-Roman philosophers and poets in only a few places in the New Testament. These instances include Acts 17:28, 1 Corinthians 15:33, and Titus 1:12.

In Acts 17:28, Paul addresses the Areopagus in Athens, engaging with Greek philosophical and religious thought to present the gospel in a way his audience can understand. This verse contains two key quotations:

"For in him we live and move and have our being" (ἐν αὐτῷ γὰρ ζῶμεν καὶ κινούμεθα καὶ ἐσμέν [En autō gar zōmen kai kinoumetha kai esmen]) and "For we are indeed his offspring" (Τοῦ γὰρ καὶ γένος ἐσμέν [Tou gar kai genos esmen]).

The first is likely drawn from Epimenides of Crete a semi-mythical 6th-century BCE Cretan philosopher, poet, and prophet. He is known for his mystical insights and association with Greek religious reforms and is credited with a famous "Liar Paradox" statement about Cretans (see below).

The biblical phrase originates from a hymn to Zeus who was the chief deity in the Greek pantheon. Here is the whole fragment of the quotation:

"Ζεὺς ἄρχει· Ζεὺς δ’ ἔσχατος, Ζεὺς κεφαλή, Ζεὺς μέσσα, πάντα δὲ Ζεύς· ἐν τῷ γὰρ ζῶμεν, κινούμεθα καὶ ἐσμέν."
"Zeus is the beginning, Zeus is the end, Zeus is the head, Zeus is the center; all things are Zeus. For in him we live and move and have our being."

The hymn emphasizes Zeus's omnipresence, creative power, and sustaining role in the universe. Paul takes the concept originally applied to Zeus and applies it to the God of Israel, the creator, and sustainer of life (Psalm 104:29-30; Colossians 1:17). While Zeus in the Greek hymn is part of creation, Paul emphasizes that the true God is distinct from His creation but also intimately involved in it as a sustainer (Acts 17:25) and personal God (Acts 17:27).

The second is likely drawn from Aratus (Phaenomena, c. 315–240 BCE), though some attribute it to Cleanthes (Hymn to Zeus). Phaenomena by Aratus of Soli is a didactic poem describing constellations and weather patterns rooted in Stoic cosmology. Paul's quotation of τοῦ γὰρ καὶ γένος ἐσμέν is located right at the beginning, praising Zeus as the divine principle governing the universe. Humans are described as Zeus’s "offspring" because of their dependence on him as the source of life and order in the universe.

The other possible source of the quotation is Cleanthes, a Stoic philosopher who wrote Hymn to Zeus. Although, the form of the quotation is ἐκ σοῦ γὰρ γένος ἐσμέν, which is a bit different, Cleanthes echos similar themes of divine immanence and governance, writing of humanity’s connection to Zeus and their responsibility to live in harmony with the divine order.

For Aratus and Cleanthes, "offspring" (γένος [genos]) denotes a shared essence with Zeus as the divine principle. In this sense, humans are rational beings who participate in the universal logos (principle, reason). Paul reframes "offspring" (γένος [genos]) to emphasize humanity’s relationship to the Creator, not as beings sharing divinity but as creatures made in God’s image (Genesis 1:27). He uses this idea to critique idolatry (Acts 17:29).

In both cases, the original context refers to humanity’s relationship to Zeus. Paul is repurposing the sense to refer to the God of Israel presenting Him as the one true creator.

In 1 Corinthians 15:33, Paul warns the Corinthian church with a line of Greek wisdom:

"Μὴ πλανᾶσθε· Φθείρουσιν ἤθη χρηστὰ ὁμιλίαι κακαί."
"Do not be deceived: Bad company corrupts good morals."

This line is a direct quotation from the Greek playwright Menander (c. 342–291 BCE), known for witty social observations, specifically from his comedy Thais (now largely lost). Thais likely depicted interactions between morally questionable characters, reflecting broader cultural wisdom about the corrupting influence of poor associations.

Paul uses it to reinforce his argument about the dangers of associating with those who reject the resurrection and sound doctrine. By quoting Menander, Paul draws on a piece of widely recognized wisdom, using it to make his point relatable to a Greek-speaking audience. In the context of OT, Proverbs 13:20 offer similar wisdom.

In Titus 1:12, Paul quotes a well-known Cretan poet, traditionally identified as Epimenides, in a strikingly critical statement about the people of Crete:

"Κρῆτες ἀεὶ ψεῦσται, κακὰ θηρία, γαστέρες ἀργαί."
"Cretans are always liars, evil beasts, lazy gluttons."

The statement attributed to Epimenides comes from his writings, likely from a hymn or poem, though the exact original context has not survived. Epimenides (6th century BCE) was a semi-mythical figure, a poet, philosopher, and prophet from Crete. Epimenides criticized his own people, the Cretans, in a context that appears to mock their reputation for dishonesty and moral corruption. Crete was notorious in the ancient world for piracy, treachery, and greed, reinforcing the stereotypes reflected in this statement. Ironically, Crete claimed to be the burial place of Zeus, which Epimenides himself ridiculed in another work.

This assertion is tied to the Epimenides Paradox (or the "Liar Paradox"). If "Cretans are always liars" is true, then Epimenides himself, a Cretan, must also be lying. This creates a logical inconsistency if interpreted literally, but in its literary context, it was likely hyperbole to emphasize the general corruption of Cretan culture.

This quotation is used by Paul to address issues in the Cretan church and the cultural challenges faced by the believers there. Paul is not affirming the universal truth of Epimenides’ critique but using it rhetorically to address the specific issues in the Cretan church. The statement is part of Paul’s broader warning about false teachers and the need for strong leadership in the church.

Further, Paul's writings occasionally reflect philosophical ideas or rhetorical styles familiar to his Greco-Roman audience (e.g., Stoicism, Epicureanism, or Platonic thought), but these are only indirect allusions or thematic overlaps.